An Ecolinguistic Analysis of Senior High School English Teachers Classroom Discourse 生态语言学视角下高中英语教师课堂话语分析文献综述

文献综述

1.Introduction1.1 Research backgroundWith the development of the new curriculum reform, the Senior High School English Curriculum Standard (2020) pays great attention to students individual learning and diverse development needs. Meanwhile, effective language learning requires students to carry out meaningful social activities in English, but for Chinese senior high school students, English learning is carried out in a non-native learning environment, and students can only learn English through conscious curriculum activities. The English classroom is the primary environment for students to learn the language and teacher talk plays an important role in the classroom. Therefore, the new curriculum reform concept also puts forward higher requirements for the development of teachers.In addition, a grand new teaching concept is presented in the new curriculum reform. The new teaching concept advocates that during the teaching process, teachers should adhere to the student-oriented principle, constantly improve the professional level, and optimize classroom teaching. The new teaching concept also advocates the communication and cooperation between teachers and students. Interaction between teachers and students is emphasized in the new curriculum reform. Teacher talk plays an important role in creating an active classroom atmosphere. In the current classroom, it is necessary to use the appropriate teacher talk to improve students learning ability. With the advancement of education, research on teacher talk is no longer limited to the field of pedagogical theory, and scholars began to explore the teacher talk from other disciplines. Ecolinguistics is one of the new disciplines, whose ideas in education and teaching are consistent with the new curriculum standards. Ecolinguistics emphasizes the interaction and communication between teachers and students in the classroom, and emphasizes the dominant position of students. It provides a new approach to the study of teacher talk. The use of teacher talk in English classroom also plays an important role on students and improving the quality of English teaching and students development. Therefore, it is meaningful to analyze the English teachers classroom discourse from the perspective of ecolinguistics and explore the ecological and non-ecological features of teachers discourse of English class in senior high school. 1.2 Need of the studyThis study is of great significance both in theory and in practice. Theoretically speaking, this study is carried out in senior high school, which aims to analyse teachers discourse in English classroom from the perspective of ecolinguistics. This study will be helpful for the future study of teacher talk. Furthermore, this study can also enrich the application of ecolinguistics in teaching and provide theoretical reference for the study of teacher talk from the perspective of ecolinguistics.Practically speaking, this study is also conductive to improving English teachers awareness of ecological teaching and deepen their understanding of ecological discourse. The analysis of teachers discourse from the perspective of ecolinguistics can help teachers have a more clear understanding of the ecological and non-ecological features of teachers discourse used in the classroom. It can make teachers pay more attention to the use of ecological discourse in their future teaching career, better implement the student-oriented development concept in the classroom, so as to promote their teaching level.1.3 Research purposesThis study aims to analyze the ecological and non-ecological features of six teachers discourse in senior high school English classroom from the perspective of ecolinguistics, so as to understand the features of teachers discourse in senior high school English classroom. In addition, the study tries to find out the similarities and differences between the ecological and non-ecological features of classroom discourse used by teachers with different teaching seniority. 2.Literature review2.1 Relevant Concepts The classroom discourse is a complex field, so that the classroom discourse can be understood in many ways. Some scholars believe classroom discourse can be divided into two categories: broad classroom discourse and narrow classroom discourse. In a broad sense, classroom discourse includes teachers blackboard writing, students in-class homework, audio-visual materials broadcast in teaching and text materials in textbooks. In a narrow sense, classroom discourse is the discourse produced in the classroom, including students discourse and teachers discourse. In order to analyze teachers discourse, it is necessary to define the teacher talk. 2.1.1 Teacher Talk There are many different definitions of teacher talk. Sinclair and Brazil (1982) firstly put forward the concept of teacher talk in foreign language teaching class. They think that teacher talk is a language used by teachers to speak in foreign language teaching. Long (1983) asserts that teacher talk refers to the teaching language that teachers use to organize and teach the second language in the foreign language classroom. It is also called teaching language or teachers discourse. David (1991) asserts that teacher talk is not only the target language for learners to learn but also an essential medium for teachers to teach in the classroom, which teachers use to organize and manage classroom activities and implement theteaching plans.All in all, Teacher talk is a tool used by teachers in the classroom to promote teaching. It refers to the whole language used by teachers in the classroom interaction，which is used to convey and express information, regulate and communicate in class, and express interpersonal feelings. Teacher talk has its own characteristics, and it can make the teachers teaching content more natural to be understood by students.2.1.2 Discourse Analysis There are many definitions of discourse analysis. According to McCarthy (2002), discourse analysis is regarded as the analysis of the language being used. It is used to study the relationship between language and the context in which language is used. Richards (1985) defined discourse analysis as the study of sentences in spoken language and written language. The purpose of discourse analysis is to explore how large meaningful units are formed in spoken and written language. Allwright and Balley (1991) regarded discourse analysis as a procedure for examining written or spoken language chunks. According to Brown (2001), discourse analysis is the study of the functions of language, and language is not just a phenomenon at the sentence level. Discourse analysis is the study of linguistic units above sentences, such as oral communication or written texts, especially interaction or dialogue between speakers. Similar to Browns view, McCarthy (2002) asserted that discourse analysis studies written language or a variety of spoken data from conversation to highly institutionalize forms of conversation generally not from the sentences or clauses but larger linguistic units such as conversational exchanges or written texts.According to the concept of discourse analysis, the study of discourse analysis is relatively extensive, and the context of discourse analysis can be oral discourse or written discourse. The context of teacher talk is studied in the oral context, so the term of classroom discourse should be involved here.2.1.3 Classroom Discourse Analysis It is self-evident that discourse is used by teachers and students in classroom interaction. It is known to all that the dialogue between teachers and students is the most important in class. In the classroom, teachers can communicate with students through teacher talk and present students with examples of correct language usage. In this way, students can not only learn language, but also practice skills. As a result, they can improve their language ability. Nunan (1992) believed that classroom discourse is a unique form of discourse existing in the classroom. In his view, the specific characteristic of classroom discourse is the unequal teacher-student relationship, which is manifested in the distribution turns between teachers and students, polite language and so on. According to Lier (1988:122) classroom discourse analysis is the process of analyzing classroom interaction through careful investigation of audio-visual recordings of classroom interaction. Allwright and Balley (1991: 61) define it as the analysis of the spoken language used by teachers and students in the classroom.In conclusion, teachers discourse is a part of classroom discourse, which is of great importance to promoting students language learning. Methodologically speaking, teachers classroom discourse analysis is a process of encoding traditional classroom teacher talk,transcribing its symbolic discourse, determining the type of analysis, and finally analyzing it.2.2 Theoretical Foundation of the StudyThis study combines the two theoretical foundations of ecolinguistics and Faircloughs three-dimensional model, which aims to analyze the ecology and non-ecology of teachers classroom discourse.2.2.1 EcolinguisticsEcolinguistics is a new branch of linguistics formed by the combination of ecology and linguistics. It studies the relationship between language and environment. It is generally believed that there are two research models of language ecology, one is called the Haugen model and the other is called the Halliday model. Each of them focuses on different aspects of ecolinguistics. The first one is Haugen model, according to Fill (Fan, 2001; Gong2004), the concept of linguistic ecology was put forward by Haugen. In 1970, Haugen attended an academic conference in Austria and gave an academic report entitled On the ecology of languages, he used the term linguistic ecology in his report and introduced ecological concepts to the study of linguistics. He published a essay entitled 'Language Ecology' (Haugen, 1972) in 1972, which was included in this report (Eliasson, 2015: 82). He made a metaphorical analogy between language and environment, and he likened the relationship between language and speech community to the relationship between living things and the natural environment. The language ecology is about that interactions between any given language and its environment. Haugen s environment here means the society that uses a language as one of its codes. Ecological environment is the basic condition for language development. With a good ecological environment, language development and language protection have basic guarantees. The second one is Halliday model, in 1990 System functional linguist MAK Halliday (1990, 2003) gave a brilliant speech on language systems and ecological factors at the International Conference on Applied Linguistics held in Greece. He emphasized language and growth conditions, the relationship between species characteristics and species formation, after which more scholars began to pay attention to the role of language on ecological and environmental issues, which promoted the in-depth study of language and ecological issues. The Halliday model emphasizes the important role of language in various ecological issues, highlights the social accountability of linguists and reminds linguists to remember what work and contributions they can make to environmental protection. Ecolinguistics forms an ecolinguistic view of foreign language teaching. The classroom from the perspective of ecolinguistics is a student-centered classroom, thus can promote the progress and growth of students. The classroom from the perspective of ecolinguistics is also a classroom with good interaction and harmonious relationship between teachers and students. From the perspective of ecolinguistics, teachers ecological discourse emphasizes the internal energy of students body and mind, and links with real life to improve students learning efficiency. Teachers ecological discourse attaches great importance to enhance students autonomous learning ability, cultivating students sustainable development quality, and laying a solid foundation for students lifelong learning. 2.2.2 Faircloughs Three-dimensional ModelFairclough asserts that language is shaped by society, which is an important element of social practice, constituting social practice with other elements. Based on this view, Fairclough puts forward his three-dimensional analysis model, which regards discourse as a unity composed of text, interaction and context. However, although the three-dimensional model makes it clear that the relationship between the social context and the text is linked by interaction (Fairclough 1992b: 10), the two concepts of interaction and context do not fully reflect the profound meaning of discourse as social practice. After optimization, Fairclough (1992a: 63) uses the concepts of social practice and discourse practice to replace context and interaction, because he emphasizes that discourse is a mode of behavior. According to Fairclough, any utterance can be viewed as a three-dimensional concept, that is text (spoken or written), discourse practice (discourse generation and interpretation) and social practice (1992a: 63). This study is based on Faircloughs three-dimensional analysis model, and regards teachers classroom discourse as a kind of social practice. It not only describes classroom discourse in text, but also explains in discourse practice. At the same time, it explores the social practice in teachers discourse to find the ecological and non-ecological features in teachers classroom discourse.In a word, this study combines the two theoretical foundations of ecolinguistics and Faircloughs three-dimensional model, which aims to analyze the ecology and non-ecology of teachers classroom discourse through the classification of beneficial and destructive discourse by Stibbe. At the same time, under the perspective of Faircloughs three-dimensional analysis model, this paper analyzes teachers classroom discourse from three aspects: text, discourse practice and social practice. In the analysis of these three stages, if the teachers classroom discourse is conducive to the progress of students and the harmony of teacher-student relationship, it is the ecology of teachers classroom discourse. On the contrary, in the analysis, teachers discourse belongs to non-ecological discourse if it is not conducive to the sustainable development of students and effective classroom interaction between teachers and students.2.3 Previous StudiesResearches on teacher talk and ecolinguistics have achieved fruitful results. This part will focus on the related research on teacher talk and ecolinguistics at home and abroad2.3.1 Previous Studies on Teacher Talk AbroadSince the term discourse analysis was put forward in 1952, the study of discourse analysis has made significant progress in twentieth century. The analysis of teacher talk in the second language classroom is also an important branch of discourse analysis.In the 1950s, western linguists began to observe and study classroom teaching. In his book Analysis of Teaching Behavior, Flanders put forward the method of discourse analysis to analyze teachers discourse. Moreover, he emphasized the importance of discourse in classroom teaching, which is an important means of classroom teaching. Teachers can impart knowledge and express ideas through classroom discourse.Since the 1960s, more and more researches on the second language classroom teaching have been carried out, mainly in teachers classroom teaching, which reflects some problems in the second language learning and reveals the importance of classroom interaction. Therefore, more and more attention has been paid to the role of teacher talk. Scholars believe that appropriate guidance of teacher talk will encourage students to participate in classroom interaction, provide opportunities for students to express their ideas, and promote second language acquisition.Since the 1970s, many scholars have conducted in-depth research on teacher talk, mainlyreflected in the teacher feedback and questioning. Barnes (1970) studied the questioning function of teacher talk and further discussed the types of teacher questioning in class. He divided the questioning into two types: display question and reference question. Display questions proposed are questions that teachers have already known the answers, and the question is in order to check whether students have mastered certain knowledge and can answer the questions that come up. In answering the display questions, the students have a limited range of answers. Display questions usually require students to give correct answers, which should include specific information and proper language form. Many display questions are limited to a word or phrase, which dramatically weakens students speech. In contrast, questions that teachers do not know the answers in advance are called reference questions, which require more thinking and response from students. Barnes believed that in the classroom, foreign language teachers use more display questions than reference questions in classroom questioning.In the 1980s, Chaudron (1988) pointed out four factors affecting teaching: teacher instruction, teacher talk, learners behavior and classroom interaction. On the one hand, he believed that not only scholars but also teachers should conduct classroom research. The ultimate goal of classroom research is to form a research framework and prepare for future teaching. On the other hand, he summarized the previous studies on teacher talk and points out that the characteristics of teacher talk are mainly embodied in phonology, lexis, syntax and discourse. When teaching, teachers will slow down their speaking speed and use exaggerated pronunciation and intonation. In the use of vocabulary, teachers will not use or use less abbreviations, but use more basic vocabulary to promote students understanding. At the same time, Weche amp; Ready (1983) also explored the characteristics of teacher talk in terms of speaking speed, pause and syntactic modification. In a word, these studies generalize teacher talk as a simplified discourse with its own characteristics in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar.In the 1990s, scholars began to understand the process of language acquisition and the interaction between teachers and students in classroom teaching. In order to strengthen teachers understanding of the relationship between teaching and learning, scholars began to study the second language classroom systematically and put forward 'teacher research'. Some linguists such as Allwright, Ellis and Nunan advocated that more research should be done on teachers to reveal the importance of effective language input and interaction in the classroom. They also advocated that teachers should create a more communicative and expressive language environment, so that learners can actively participate in classroom activities and promote their own language acquisition. However, during this period, most of the studies were carried out in the target language countries, and the subjects involved were all native English speakers.After the 21 st century, foreign scholars mainly study code-switching teacher talk, which is mainly reflected in the proportion of teachers language in classroom. The foreign scholar Skehan (2006) explored circumstances under which teachers use their mother tone and target language. In addition, the factors affecting code-switching and the impact of code-switching are also part of Skehans studies. Collin (2012) explained teachers negativeutterances from perspective of cognitive linguistics and made a qualitative analysis of teachers negative utterances from the perspective of cognitive linguistics. Since this century, foreign experts have also discussed the power of teachers and the smooth development of teaching. For example, in 2007, Yo-An Lee published an article entitled The Third Inversion of Teacher Talk: Contingency and Teaching. In a word, after the 21st century, the research perspectives and contents on teacher talk are more diversified, such as linguistic theory, second language acquisition theory, discourse analysis theory and so on, which provide more diversified research perspectives for teacher talk research in some degree.In conclusion, the study of teacher talk in foreign countries is a gradual process and has achieved fruitful results. From the above findings, the study of teacher talk abroad is relatively extensive, involving the characteristics of teacher talk, the functions of teacher talk,teachers questioning and teacher feedback. In the 1950s, with the publication of the book Analysis of Teaching Behavior scholars began to pay attention to the teachers discourse. In the 1960s, scholars began to explore the function of teacher talk and they first concerned about the impact of teacher talk on students language output and made it clear that appropriate guidance of teacher talk will promote students language acquisition. In the 1970s, scholars paid more attention to the feedback and questioning function of teacher talk and scholars verified their views through empirical research. After that, the factors affecting teaching and the characteristics of teacher talk in grammar and vocabulary are mentioned and studied. Scholars also pay attention to the influence of the amount of teacher talk on the quality of teaching and students language output.2.3.2 Previous Studies on Teacher Talk at HomeThe study of teacher talk in foreign countries has been carried out for many years, and alot of achievements have been made. Compared with the foreign research, the study of teachertalk in China started relatively late. At the end of the last century, Chinese scholars began to pay attention to the teacher talk. The research on teacher talk in China can be divided into three stages, namely: the initial exploration stage, the expansion stage and the in-depth research stage.In the first stage, it is the initial stage of teacher talk in China period from the 1980s to the middle of 1990s. During this period, scholars hold the view that teacher talk is equal to theteachers explanation in the classroom. During this period, most of the research is theoretical research, and the number of empirical research is relatively small.The expansion stage is from the mid-1990s to the early 21st century. In the 1990s, with the recognition of the important role of interaction in the classroom teaching, the theory that the essence of classroom teaching is the process of interaction between teachers and students has been clearly defined, and teacher talk has attracted more and more scholars attention and research. With the appeal of scholars for the importance of teacher talk, the theoretical and empirical research on teacher talk has increased, and the relevant linguistic theories have also begun to intervene.In the expansion stage, domestic scholars mainly focus on the introduction and discussion of foreign classroom discourse theory. Zhang (2002) made a contrastive analysis of natural language and teacher talk, and found that teacher talk, as the main language input and teaching medium in classroom teaching, presents the single form and function, which is not beneficial to students language acquisition. Zhou (2006) believed that teachers should use teacher talk as a medium to organize students classroom activities in limited time, so as to increase students participation and language output in the classroom activities.Compared with the preliminary stage, scholars have observed teachers classroom teaching from the perspective of empirical research and carried out some empirical research on teacher talk. Zhao (1998) has done a lot of empirical research on teacher talk practice in college and Middle School English classes from the aspects of the quantity and feedback. As a result, he concludes students rarely have time to express their views in English classes in China. This is not consistent with the goal of cultivating a student-centered English classroom and improving students output. Zhou (2002) have also done some empirical research. They found that the new communicative teaching model can provide more opportunities for students to communicate, and students participation in class is high, which can promote students language acquisition and development.To sum up, in the expansion stage, the empirical research on teacher talk has and it becomes one of the mainstream trends of teacher talk research. In addition, the depth and breadth of the study of teacher talk have increased in this stage. With the intervention of linguistic theory, the study of the language class, especially English classroom teacher talk has taken place in the study of teacher talk, which is a great transcendence of the study of teacher talk confined to the cultivation of language skills for a long time in China.In the 21 st century, China has also entered the stage of the in-depth study of teacher talk.Zhou (2006) analyzed English college class by conversational analysis and pointed out that the choice of discourse in teacher talk has a certain effect on learners language learning and classroom participation. With the help of ecological theory, Niu (2010) pointed out the problems of teacher talk in the classroom. Then, he takes measures to improvethe function of teacher talk and create a harmonious classroom ecological environment and promote the all-round development of students. Su (2011), guided by the concept of ecolinguistics, realizes the dynamic balance of the teaching environment through the online course selection software. From the perspective of ecolinguistics, Wang (2008) analyzed and revealed the relationship between the ecological elements of English college teaching, and put forward corresponding measures for English college reform.2.3.3 Research Status of Ecolinguistics at Home and AbroadResearches on ecolinguistics at home and abroad have made a lot of achievements. This part will present some related researches on ecolinguistics at home and abroad. Ecolinguistics is a new subject which combines ecology and linguistics. It covers a wide range of subjects, including language teaching, literature, and translation. The study of ecolinguistics in foreign countries began in the 1970s, and some achievements have been made. However, most of the achievements are concentrated on the study of environmental discourse. There are few pieces of research on education from the perspective of ecolinguistics. Goatly (2017) gave a presentation entitled 'Grammar and the Human-Nature Relationship in Environmental Discourse and Poetry'. He combined ecolinguistics with educational discourse to analyze language ecology, and analyzes the relationship between language and society through poetry. At the Second Ecolinguistics Conference, some foreign scholars proposed to study classroom teaching from the perspective of ecolinguistics. Later, some Chinese scholars began to study classroom discourse from this perspective in college classrooms.The study of ecolinguistics in China is not only embodied in the study of environmentaldiscourse, but also in teaching research and ecological discourse analysis. Li (1991) proposed that the ecosystem of teaching should be divided into the external ecosystem and internal ecosystem. The external ecosystem is the big ecosystem of society, and the internal ecosystem is the mini-ecosystem of classroom teaching. Li holds that language should be analyzed and studied from the perspective of the interdependence and interaction between language and its external environment.In the opinion of Shen (2008), from the perspective of ecolinguistics, the concept of interactive development of foreign language teaching, the concept of multicultural education and foreign language teaching environment are particularly important. Wang (2008) analyzed and revealed the close relationship and interaction between the ecological elements of English college teachingteachers, students, teaching methods and the environment from the perspective of ecolinguistics, and put forward corresponding reform measures. Wu and Li (2009) examined the ecological view of language teaching from the social and cultural perspective of Western scholars. Wang (2010) explored the reform of English college teaching from the perspectives of teachers teaching philosophy, teaching objectives, teaching methods, teaching contents and ecological teaching tests under the guidance of ecolinguistics. Based on Web-based interaction, Liu (2011) takes English writing as an experimental course in Heilongjiang Province to explore the advantages of English writing from the perspective of ecolinguistics. The teacher uses the theories of ecolinguistics to guide foreign language teaching, which opens up a new perspective for the study of foreign language teaching. Zhang and Su (2011) believed that under the guidance of the concept of ecolinguistics and its teaching concept, and with the power of network course selection software, we can configure the ecological audio-visual network and classroom physical environment, and realize the dynamic balance between cognitive environment and social and cultural environment. Zhou (2012) described the ecological and non-ecological features of the English language system. Ma (2013) explored an ecological dynamic English teaching model based on ecolinguistics and dynamic system theory.In addition to the application of ecolinguistics by the above scholars, there are also someexperts who attach great importance to the application of ecolinguistics in teaching. At the ecolinguistic conference in 2017, Wang made a report on Foreign Language Education Research as a Macro Structure of Discipline, which explored the concept of foreign language teaching and the macro structure of foreign language teaching discipline from the perspective of ecolinguistics. Wang believed that the teaching ecosystem is dynamic, and he divided the teaching ecosystem into teaching, learning, evaluation and other interrelated processes. In addition, Wang advocated that, whether for practical or theoretical reasons, under the current situation of vigorously promoting internationalization in China, we should integrate the research fields of second language acquisition, foreign language teaching and foreign language curriculum to effectively improve students foreign language competence and teachers teaching ability. At the second conference, Ding (2018) combined ecology with education and constructed ecological concept in educational discourse. At the same time, he pointed out that ecolinguistics has broad prospects in discipline development, academic research, personnel training, and textbook compilation and so on.2.4 Research GapIn the past 20 years, it is undeniable that ecolinguistics has made great progress and development in China, but its application in teaching is still very limited, and so as researches on senior high school English classroom from the perspective of ecolinguistics. The author searched the key words on CNKI and found several related articles. From the perspective of ecolinguistics, there is little research on senior high school English classroom. The research of ecolinguistics in education is mainly focused on English college classes at present. Therefore, there is a very broad research space for senior high school English teachers classroom discourse analysis from the perspective of ecolinguistics.ReferencesAllright, R. (1983). Classroom-centered research on language teaching and learning: A brief historical overview. TESOL Quarterly (4):197-204.Barners, D. (1969). Language in Secondary Classroom Language, the Learner and the School Classroom. In D. Barners ett al. (eds.) Harmondsworth: Penguin.Ellis, R. (1990). Instructed Second Language Acquisition Fairclough, N. 1992. Language and Power. Oxford: Blackwell.程晓堂（2008），《英语教师课堂话语分析》，上海:上海外语教育出版社。

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